... 2010s under the threat of secondary sanctions and financial penalties. The European Union criticised the US invasion of Iraq in 2003. Germany and France were particularly vocal. Even Moscow adopted a more cautious and balanced policy. Finally, after the Ukraine crisis started in 2014, the EU was hardly in a hurry to escalate sanctions against Russia. Brussels, and especially Berlin, were irritated by the first Trump administration’s attempts to impede the construction of the Nord Stream 2 pipeline ...
... words, for many Russian citizens, the “end of history” came to a definitive close on February 24, 2022. At that moment, they again saw themselves as part of a historical process and ceased to believe in the validity of Western dogmas, asserting that international relations should be viewed exclusively through the lens of liberal theory. In the Ukrainian context, this has meant a return to viewing Ukraine as the cradle of Russian civilization. Consequently, Russia must struggle to shape Kyiv’s political trajectory so that it reflects, at a minimum, a friendly orientation toward Moscow.
It is difficult, from a historical perspective, to separate ...
