The Trend of Studying Environmental Issues in Contemporary Foreign IR Research
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Dr. of Economics, Professor of International Economic Relations and Foreign Economic Relations MGIMO University
The study of environmental issues is not a new phenomenon. The history of humanity has always been linked to the environment. With industrialisation came the start of a rise in the scale of damage done to the environment, which in time was reflected in scientific research. In the second half of the twentieth century the unprecedented rate of worldwide economic growth led to qualitative changes in the balance of the relationship between humanity and nature at a global level. As a result science began to focus more closely on environmental issues and try to develop a different model of development, which implied a change in its priorities.
The study of environmental issues is not a new phenomenon. The history of humanity has always been linked to the environment. With industrialisation came the start of a rise in the scale of damage done to the environment, which in time was reflected in scientific research. In the second half of the twentieth century the unprecedented rate of worldwide economic growth led to qualitative changes in the balance of the relationship between humanity and nature at a global level. As a result science began to focus more closely on environmental issues and try to develop a different model of development, which implied a change in its priorities. It was all about the concept of sustainable development, which had been elaborated within the UN in the 1980s and which proposed a coherent approach to tackling economic, environmental and social issues. This concept was presented at the Rio de Janeiro conference in 1992, but its application was hindered by numerous problems connected with changes in the global economy and international relations.
The global financial and economic crisis of 2008–2009 made academics focus more closely on environmental issues. This period is characterised by a rise in economic, political, cultural and social problems. A notable factor in the forced development of international science is the need to address global problems and to find a way out of a multiple crisis that involved the environment, resources, food and economics. Other factors include ensuring energy security and making economies more competitive, increasing the activity of civil society, which is concerned about health and quality of life as well as the life of future generations, and also the need to address development issues in the context of the planet’s rising population.
In all likelihood, the crisis phenomena of recent times and the low rate of economic growth indicate the conclusion of a long period of growth in the global economy and the emergence of a new technological era which is gradually taking shape within the existing one. Demand for new research is also coming from business, which is deriving growing dividends from the expansion of new environmental markets.
Global environmental problems are taking on a strategic nature and moving to the centre of global politics, which is also boosting interest in the study of environmental issues.
All the aforementioned factors have helped to raise the profile of environmental issues and of moves to restructure the global economy in line with an environmentally-focused model of development. This has required a new theoretical basis and a move by science to focus the whole world’s efforts on implementing a new strategy involving the latest practical experience. In view of the fact that radically transforming the world’s economy and people’s actual way of life is an unprecedented objective which needs to be achieved in historically short order, in recent years environmental problems have been one of the most important topics in scientific papers.
We are seeing an increase in the amount of research on this topic, and the number of specialist scientific journals and organisations is growing. The environment is receiving greater attention from outstanding scholars, for example Nobel Prize winner Paul Krugman, Harvard Business School’s Professor Michael Porter, who is a recognised specialist in the field of research into international competition, and many others. Thus Paul Krugman’s articles (since 2000 he has written an analytical column in the New York Times and had articles in The Economist) have repeatedly advocated urgent action to counter global climate change and to expand the use of solar energy [1]. Michael Porter has focused attention on the possibilities of countries’ using the environmental factor to increase their international competitive advantages [2].
The analytical works are integrated in nature, linking environmental problems with the question of fulfilling economic, social and cultural objectives, which is reflected in the works of such well-known scientists as J. Beddington, W. Bell, A. Cosby, P. Nouvell, R. Stavins, J. Stiglitz, N. Stern etc [3].
The growing cooperation between different organisations in the field of studying the potential of environmentally friendly development is an important trend. Thus UNEP has set up a special network of scientists and experts to study the theory and practice of the concept of green growth – the Green Growth Knowledge Platform – in cooperation with the OECD, the World Bank and the Institute for Sustainable Development [4].
The new stage of research in the field of environmental science is linked with initiatives by the UN and other international organisations to develop the concept of the green economy. In 2008 the main UN environmental body – the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) – launched the “Green Economy Initiative” [5] to analyse opportunities for investment in environmentally clean manufacturing with the aim of getting the global economy out of crisis. UNEP commissioned the “Global Green New Deal” report [6], which included in particular recommendations for boosting economic growth while increasing the environmental sustainability of the global economy. This has become a key subject for scientific analysis.
The development of a green economy is the context in which many studies on environmental conservation issues are currently being considered. The most important works include UNEP’s 2011 report “Towards a Green Economy” [7], which was written in cooperation with other organisations and companies. This document presents an integrated analysis of the shortcomings in the existing development paradigm, and also a rationale for the need to change it by investing in the “greening” of the main industries. The report’s achievements include its conclusion that such investment at the level of 2% of global GDP would accelerate the transition to a low-carbon economy; this would require appropriate state policy involving tax and budgetary measures.
Other international organisations have also subsequently researched the concept of the green economy (the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, UNCTAD, UNDP, FAO, ILO, UN regional commissions, World Bank, OECD, Global Green Growth Institute, Green Economy Coalition, etc) [8]. The ideas of a green economy and how to manage this process were very important topics at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 (Rio+20).
The World Bank is also engaged in studying green economy issues, and in 2012 it produced its report “Inclusive Green Growth. The Pathway to Sustainable Development”. This work focuses on the choice of a pathway that combines the “urgent need for rapid growth and poverty alleviation with the need to avoid irreversible and costly environmental damage” [9].
The main areas of developing a green economy include tackling the problem of climate change, and a significant number of studies are devoted to this. It is no coincidence that one of the synonyms used for the green economy is low-carbon growth. The international community regards the climate issue as the main threat to the development of humanity in the future. Many international organisations, institutes and individual scientists are researching the opportunities for solving it and the things that stand in way of solving it. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was founded by the World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP, studies the scientific causes of climate change and the risks associated with it, and regularly publishes reports [10].
Other UN bodies analyse specific environmental issues in the context of their specialisation. Thus the FAO is researching the impact of agriculture on global resources and the health of the population. The International Monetary Fund is studying issues connected with how to finance the transition to low-carbon development, which will require significant financial expenditure (up to 100 billion dollars per year) in the next few years. Also under consideration is the possibility of creating a “Green Fund” which would provide these funds to countries not capable of independently finding the resources to address climate problems. The ILO and other organisations are analysing the social issues, focusing not on the provision of assistance but on the possibilities of increasing “green” employment [11].
The UNDP is financing research into the characteristics and potential of a transition to a green economy, primarily in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia [12]. Research is underway into the opportunities for increasing their competitive advantages as a result of more efficient use of their natural capital by implementing financial and technical assistance programmes. In particular, reports have been published on Russia (a situation analysis of the energy sector and the prospects of its development) and Georgia [13].
The environment is also becoming one of the OECD’s priority topics. This organisation was one of those which initiated the development of a green growth strategy launched in May 2011 [14]. This was one of the key topics in the strategic benchmarks for its work in the period after 2012 [15].
To analyse progress and to plan the transition to a green economy requires the use of indicators which adequately evaluate the environmental factor: resources being consumed, pollution of the environment, and ecosystem services. Research is currently underway to define the indicators of a green economy. Among the most significant work is the research being conducted by UNEP in cooperation with other international organisations and states, and also that being done by other UN bodies [16]. Thus in 2012 the UN Statistical Commission adopted the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting [17], which takes into account changes in the condition of natural capital (water, fish and land resources, ecosystems etc.), as an international standard. The World Bank has developed an adjusted net savings index [18]. Similar work is also being done by other organisations, regional agreements and individual countries, for example the EU (“Beyond GDP”) [19] and the OECD (“Measuring Well-Being and Progress”) [20]. Virtually all the solutions being put forward cover productivity in the use of the main types of resources, the state of ecosystems, investment and innovation in “green” markets, and also the well-being of people.
There is also a large number of non-governmental bodies which are studying various aspects of the green economy: not-for-profit organisations, expert centres, commerce and industry associations, and research organisations. They are interested both in specific issues and in the broad spectrum of environmental topics.
One example of the not-for-profit organisations is WWF, which engages with issues concerning the preservation of biodiversity (and publishes its “Living Planet” reports) in the context of such environmental problems as climate change, the negative impact of the gas and oil sector, etc.
There are expert centres, for example the World Resources Institute, which undertakes a wide range of research on topics including climate change, protection of ecosystems, environmental management, etc. In particular, the institute has development indicators for the state of the climate [21].
National, regional and international commerce and industry associations, which as a rule reflect the interests of particular companies or industries, are playing an active role in studying individual industries. One example is the report on the role of the steel industry in reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, which was written by the World Steel Association [22].
Scientific research institutes and universities are studying a wide range of environmental problems. For example, the Environmental Economics Research Institute in Germany is interested in the sustainable management of companies, the creation of “climate-friendly” energy systems, sustainable consumption, etc.
In recent years there has been an expansion in cooperation between various organisations, including business organisations, and environmental bodies in producing analytical reports. For example, the global insurance industry teamed up with UNEP to produce a report on the possible role of this industry in the future green economy [20].
Researchers in various countries are analysing the prospects for developing individual sectors of the green economy: industry, construction, transport, agriculture, water, forestry, fisheries, and also tourism, which is experiencing radical changes at the moment due to the rapid creation of green segments within it [24]. There is a particular focus on the energy industry, the restructuring of which could play a key role in reducing climate change.
There is an increasing number of papers that link environmental issues with development. People are studying the contribution of the green economy to eliminating poverty in developing states, primarily in the least developed states. International technological and financial aid to develop these countries is playing a big role [25].
One serious obstacle in the way of environmentally restructuring the global economy is the limited access to the developed countries’ markets for goods from developing states, since they do not meet the new requirements. There is now a particular emphasis on the contribution of trade policy to the development of the green economy, on the difference between countries’ positions, and on the role of the international community in tackling these problems. At the same time, research is emphasising the favourable conditions in developing countries for “greening”. The combination of rich natural capital and the absence of “dirty” businesses is providing good opportunities for producing and exporting environmentally clean products and services. This could include organic agricultural produce, environmentally clean energy, waste management industries, agriculture, sustainable forestry, and the development of environmental tourism in the context of consumers’ increasing preferences [26].
Representatives of business are also involved in scientific research, which is linked with the penetration of environmental concern into the activity of trans-national corporations, which regard it as one of the most important factors in the competitive struggle. There is increased interest in research into social and environmental innovations and environmental markets for goods and services [27]. Significant opportunities are opening up for companies in this field, thanks to the rapid growth rates of these markets, which many estimates say will be leaders in the twenty-first century. This primarily applies to the markets for energy-efficient and other resource-saving technologies, and also to waste processing, clean water supplies, etc.
Reports in recent years have particularly focused on the expansion of state and private investment in the environmental sphere. A central element in this is environmentally clean energy. It is investment in energy, where significant time elapses between investment in projects and their completion, which is likely to help create a new system for the global economy and define its shape in 2020. Research into investment in environmental innovations, which are regarded as a central factor in achieving a green revolution, is playing an important role [28].
Many studies emphasise that to move to an environmental pathway to development requires a greater emphasis on education, which is considered essential to pushing this process forward, and also to the fight against poverty and inequality. Culture and information are other important factors in transforming society [29].
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Environmental concern is becoming increasingly significant in international politics, which is shown by the rising number of scientific papers on this topic. People are examining the integration of environmental concern into the theory of international relations, the links between geopolitics and environmental pollution, and also geopolitical aspects of access to declining natural resources [30]. It is especially worth noting the influence of climate change on national and international security [31].
Moving to a new development pathway means increasing the role of managing these processes at all levels, which has been reflected in the increased number of scientific papers examining its various aspects, including the political, economic and legal aspects [32]. The significance of this research is growing in the context of the constant rise in the number of institutes and international agreements. Scientists are focusing their attention on the negotiations about a new agreement to restrict emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which could lead to a replacement for the Kyoto Protocol.
Traditional areas of research are developing, and new ones are emerging: the state of ecosystems, the preservation of biodiversity, questions concerning the stockpiling and utilisation of dangerous chemical substances and the international trade in such substances. New areas include environmental aspects of development in the Arctic, etc.
The attention international organisations and forums are paying to the green economy strategy and to the study of environmental issues has stimulated research at the regional and national level. Scientific analysis of environmental issues is being conducted in a number of developed and developing countries. Many European institutes are publishing analytical reports. These include results on the implementation of the EU’s sustainable development strategy, the Roadmap for increasing the efficiency of energy use (part of the Europe 2020 strategy) [33], which regards it as the main factor in increasing competitiveness and securing economic growth in the EU.
Research in the area of environmentally friendly growth also covers matters related to the development of the relevant government strategies, and also general economic and environmental policy measures, including the practical application of its various instruments. National green economy strategies are being developed by developed and developing countries, including states in Africa, Latin America and the Asia-Pacific region. Cooperation between governments and business is expanding, which is making it possible to reduce the risks of transitioning to environmentally friendly development [34].
Analysis in individual countries is helping to define national priorities, issues and the tools required for the full range of economic, environmental and social policy. For example, in the USA analytical reports are primarily geared towards the contribution of green growth to post-crisis recovery, in particular in connection with the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, passed in 2009 [35]. In Canada discussions about the green economy are centred on questions of economic growth and employment [36]. Supporting the environmental sustainability of the resource base in the context of the great importance of the extraction industries for the national economy is an important issue. In Japan the development of a new growth strategy (2010) included as a priority the development of renewable sources of energy and protection of the environment, which is linked with the country’s limited energy resources, even more so since the Fukushima events. Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean region consider green economy issues mainly in the context of overcoming poverty and inequality, and also of providing a growing population with basic infrastructure and services. These regions are now at the cutting edge of the practical application of green economy principles in certain industries [37]. Also notable is the growing number of publications on environmental issues and the green economy in China, which is due to the catastrophic situation in the environment as a result of rapid economic growth.
It is worth noting the significant progress in science in the field of the environment as a whole and the green economy in particular, despite the fact that research in this field has only been done for a few years. There has been quite a deep study of the links between energy and the environment, including the development of renewable sources (many organisations and countries are publishing reports on this subject), industry and the environment, and the efficient use of resources. At the same time, science has not yet made sufficient progress in studying questions analysing the life cycle of products, environmental auditing, sustainable consumption, etc.
We can assume that in the long term the field of environmental research will develop faster than others, given the growth in demand for such research on the part of states, international organisations, business and society as a whole.
1. Cf for example his articles in the New York Times: Building a Green Economy. 7 April 2010; Here Comes the Sun. 6 November 2011; Letters: Green Economics. 22 April 2010; Gambling with Civilization. The New York Review of Books. Volume 60, Number 17. 7 November 2013. Or for example his article in The Economist: Can trade restrictions be justified on environmental grounds? 23 February 2013 – on the need to bring in a border tax on carbon.
2. Cf for example: Porter, M., Claas van der Linde. “Toward a New Conception of the Environment-Competitiveness Relationship.” In A Reader on Environmental Law, edited by Bridget Hutter. Oxford Readings in Socio-Legal Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
3. Cf for example: Stavins R., Jaffe J., Schatzki T. 2007. Too good to be true? An examination of three economic assessments of California climate change policy. NBER Working Paper No. 13587. Stern N. Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change. Report to Her Majesty’s Treasury. 30 October. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2006; Stiglitz J. Making Globalization Work. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2006.
4. http://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/
5. http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/aboutgei/whatisgei/tabid/29784/default.aspx
6. Global Green New Deal: Policy brief. UNEP. March 2009.
7. “Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication (a synthesis for policy makers). UNEP, 2011. http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/GER_synthesis_ru.pdf
8. Cf for example: A guidebook to the Green Economy. UN Division for Sustainable Development. August 2012; The Green Economy. Systems of Signs and Indicators. UNEP, 2012.
9. Inclusive Green Growth. The Pathway to Sustainable Development. The World Bank, 2012.
10. For example: Climate Change 2007. Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. IPCC, 2007; Helm D., Hepburn C., Ruta G. Trade, climate change, and the political game theory of border carbon adjustments. Oxford Review of Economic Policy. Volume 28, Number 2, 2012.
11. Cf for example: A fresh look at the green economy. Washington DC. Oxfam America. 2010; Green Jobs: Towards Decent Work in a Sustainable, Low‐Carbon World. UNEP, ILO. 2011.
12. Resource constraints and economic performance in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. UNDP, 2011.
13. National Human Development Report 2009 for the Russian Federation. Energy Sector and Sustainable Development. – M., 2010; Recovery, Conservation and Sustainable Use of Georgia’s Agrobiodiversity. UNDP Georgia, GEF, 2010.
14. Towards Green Growth. OECD Publishing. OECD. 2011.
15. Strategic Orientations by the Secretary-General. Meeting of the OECD Council at the Ministerial Level. OECD, Paris, 23–24 May 2012.
16. Cf for example: Measuring Progress Towards a Green Economy – draft working paper, UNEP. 2012.
17. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting 2012: Central Framework. United Nations. New York, 2014.
18. Calculating Adjusted Net Saving. http://web.worldbank.org
19. Cf for example: Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament – GDP and beyond: measuring progress in a changing world. COM/2009/0433 final
20. For example: The OECD Better Life Initiative: Measuring well-being and progress. OECD, 2011.
21. For example: World Resources Institute website – http://cait2.wri.org; Climate Analysis Indicators Database. World Resources Institute. http://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cait-climate-data-explorer; Herzog T., Pershing J., Baumert K. Greenhouse Gas Data and International Climate Policy. World Resources Institute. December 2005.
22. Europe’s environment. An assessment of assessments. European Environment Agency, 2011.
23. Europe’s environment. An assessment of assessments. European Environment Agency, 2011.
24. Cf for example: Green Economy in a Blue World – Synthesis Report. UNEP, FAO, IMO, UNDP, UNDESA, IUCN, World Fish Center, GRID‐Arendal. 2012.
25. Cf for example: Aid in Support of Environment. OECD 2012; Development Cooperation Report 2012. DAC OECD 2012; The Architecture of Aid for the Environment: A ten-year statistical perspective. October, 2009. CFP Working Paper Series No. 3.
26. Cf for example: What a Green Economy Matters for Least Developed Countries. UNEP, UNCTAD, UN‐OHRLLS. 2011; Green Growth and Developing Countries – A Summary for Policy Makers. OECD Publishing. 2012; Greening Development: Enhancing Capacity for Environmental Management and Governance. OECD Publishing. OECD. 2012; Green Economy and Trade Opportunities – Draft for Discussion (18 June 2012). UNEP, International Trade Centre, ICTSD. 2012; The Transition to a Green Economy: Benefits, Challenges and Risks from a Sustainable Development Perspective. UNDESA, UNEP, UNCTAD. 2011; The Green Economy: Trade and Sustainable Development Implications. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2011.
27. Cf for example: Green Economy Roadmap. International Chamber of Commerce. 2012; Ten conditions for a transition toward a “Green Economy”. International Chamber of Commerce. 2011.
28. Cf for example: Fostering Innovation for Green Growth. OECD Publishing. OECD. 2011.
29. Cf for example: From Green Economies to Green Societies. UNESCO. 2011.
30. Cf for example: Mulligan S. Reassessing the Crisis: Ecology and Liberal International Relations. Alternatives: Global, Local, Political. Sage publications. April 2010, No. 35: pp. 137–162.
31. For example: Huebert R., Exner-Pirot H., Lajeunesse A., Gulledge J. Climate Change & International Security: The Arctic as a Bellwether. May 2012; Scheffran J., Brzoska M., Afes-Press H.G., Link P.M., Schilling J. (Eds.). Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict. Challenges for Societal Stability. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace. Vol. 8. Springer, 2012.
32. Cf for example: Beyond Rio+20: Governance for a Green Economy, Boston University. Pardee Centre. 2011.
33. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Energy Roadmap 2050. Brussels, XXX COM(2011) 885/2; Sustainable development in the European Union 2013 monitoring report of the EU sustainable development strategy European Commission. Eurostat, 2013.
34. Cf for example: Enabling the Transition to a Green Economy: Government and business working together. London, UK. HM Government. 2011; Green Economy Accord (Vol. 1). Economic Development Department. Pretoria, Republic of South Africa. 2011; National Sustainable Development Strategy: Towards a Green & Fair Economy. Republic Francaise. 2010; A Green Economy for Canada. Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy.2011; Road to Our Future: Green Growth. Seoul. Republic of Korea. 2009.
35. American Recovery and Reinvestment Tax Act of 2009.
36. Cf., for example: Canada and the green economy. The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, October 2012; The Greening of the Canadian Economy. Special Report. TD Economics. October 2, 2013; The Green Jobs Map: Tracking Employment through Canada’s Green Economy. Environmental Carriers Organization. 2012.
37. Cf., for example: Europe’s environment. An assessment of assessments. European Environment Agency, 2011.
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